Dumezil, a previous comparative religious scholar, and his three functions in IE cosmology are today still influential in modern religious scholarship in this field. However, there are legitimate criticisms one should be aware of when engaging with his work. Lincoln (1998) identifies four main concerns with Dumezil and his work. First, Dumezil’s idealisation with the Indo-Europeans and the tri-partite system. Second, the introduction of his theory during a period of rising fascism in France. Third, the tri-partite systems resemblance to Mussolini’s “integral nationalism” and “corporate society”. Fourth, his association in circles close to Action Francaise, a far-right group. Other evidence, including Dumezil’s association with fascists, Nazis, Aryanists and having written under a pseudonym for two right-wing journals show that Dumezil was not an apolitical scholar, but his obsession with social order arose from his right-wing beliefs (Lincoln, 1998). On top of this, Lincoln (1998) does also find issues with Dumezil’s comparative methods, not just his own personal ideology (1998). Lincoln (2002) however expresses in a later article, that the work of Dumezil is worth considering still, despite very serious criticisms. Shaw, Lyle and Allen, all share criticisms of Dumezil, but all consider the tri-partite theory of Dumezils to be revolutionary within the comparative religious studies field and they themselves will be referenced below on the work they have done evolving and improving Dumezil’s original ideas. With a critical lens, we continue on with the article.

The Three Functions

The sacred, the violent and forceful, and the fertile and abundant are the three functions fulfilled by priests, warriors, farmers or merchants, respectively. The Heavens, Earth and Sea, or Heavens, Atmosphere and Earth, are the cosmological structures that relate to the three functions (Shaw, 2012). Shaw (2012) points out, however, that within the literature, there is evidence for the existence of a fourth function or cosmological structure, an ‘other’ which does not fit within the tripartite system. It often takes its place as the Otherworld, in either a positive or negative light. For example, the fields of Elysium as a positive Otherworld and Tartarus as a negative Otherworld, but both still being Otherworldly.

Lyle (1982) also gives us a four-part system to view IE cosmology, represented by the four cardinal points and four colours representing the different functions. This system can be seen with the founding of Rome, with the story of the four chariots racing towards their respective cardinal points, each having its own colour.

The 'fourth' function, represented by the Goddess, represents a synthesising of the three functions, and on a vertical plane represents the fourth structure (Lyle, 1982). In addition to this, the fourth function as the Goddess is most closely associated with the third function, in opposition to the first and second functions. The fourth function may also have its own unique function: cosmic order, justice, and truth. This has obvious associations with the World Tree via all functions and structures within this fourth function. Cosmologically the three functions are related to the head, body above the waist, and the body below the waist, respectively, and the seasons' spring, summer and winter. The fourth function represents the whole body through all the functions and structures and autumn. The cosmic structure put forth by Lyle (1982) is complex and intricate and is best explained visually, see below.

Allen (2007) is one of the leading proponents of the fourth function and argues that Homer's description of Achilles shield (126 lines) expresses these four functions. The shield of Achilles has a broad range of images that, when analysed, can be seen to fit into the four-function model. Depictions of human activity in the middle include weddings, ploughing and other farming, battle, cosmic scenes of celestial bodies, such as the earth, moon, sun and constellations in the central boss, and the ocean ringing the whole shield. Allen argues that the human activities described, the wedding and law case, a city besieged and agricultural work, express the first, second, and third functions. He then argues that the centre boss of cosmic entities, and the outer ocean rim, represent the fourth function, which he splits into F4+ and F4- respectively. Allen explains the F4+ as 'valued otherness' and 'transcendence', while he explains F4- as 'devalued otherness' and 'exclusion'. 

Concluding the look into Dumezil’s tripartite theory, we can see that modern scholars are largely in agreement that there is a fourth function that constitutes an ‘other’, which has a liminal and perhaps all-encompassing nature. Below we will consider other non-Dumezilian material to diversify our sources of information.

Dodge (2020) proposes a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) cosmos based upon a large comparative study of the cosmos as seen in the myths of PIE people. Their comparative review of PIE material supports the inclusion of a three-part world view that is located around a World Tree which acts as an axis mundi. They further describe the World Tree as bright and white, reflecting its celestial nature. Furthering the geography of the cosmos, they propose a ‘Watery Way’ down to the base of the World Tree, which culminates into a Well from which the tree feeds. At the base of the tree and by the well they suggest a hall in which at least some of the Gods dwell. Taking Dodges work as is, we could propose that the three worlds, the heavens, middle world and underworld, relate to the first, second and third functions respectively. The World Tree then, which exists in all three realms, and yet is separate, could be representative of the proposed fourth function. 

Grigsby (2019) in a study of ritual sites in Britain and PIE comparative myth, suggests that skyscape was of central importance to the spiritual lives of these people, which can also be seen in the focus on celestial motifs (Dodge, 2020). Many constellations and stars were important to the Indo-Europeans, but the Milky Way was central (Grigsby, 2019). The Milky Way was seen as a celestial milky river created by an act of a Goddess with bovine aspects, and all earthly rivers are given that same origin (Grigsby, 2019). Grigsby suggests that the Milky Way was seen as the path the souls of the dead would travel to their final destination and is therefore similar to the ‘Watery Way’ that Dodge proposes, a watery journey to the world of the dead.

The work by Dodge and Grigsby above highlight the mythic and cosmic importance of the World Tree, bovines and celestial motifs. This can be seen further in Lincoln (1975). Lincoln recreates the Indo-European cosmic creation myth. The creation myth explains the cosmic structure of the world and the social structure and explains the importance of sacrifice. The myth at its core is thus: the first primordial human and primordial bovine are sacrificed, the body of the first human creates the world and humans, and the body of the bovine creates all plants, animals and water. The human and bovine together represent the social world as a whole, and from then on, the sacrifice of human and bovine is an act of recreating the world. Human and bovine can then be further abstracted, with Cusack (2011) showing that tree=human=world and bovines=plants=animals=water (Lincoln, 1986).

The Three (and a bit) Worlds

In this section, we will contextualise the comparative studies and theories from above into a Gaulish worldview. We will discuss Albios, Bitus, Dumnos and Antumnos. The inhabitants of these realms that the Gauls knew will also be explored. 

Albios: Albios is the world above, the sky (Delamarre, 2003). Delamarre suggests that Albios only has mythic and religious meaning, and does not relate to the physical sky, but to the luminous world, the world from above. The root *Alb comes from Indo-European meaning white. 

Bitus: Bitus is the realm in between Albios and Dumnos (Delamarre, 2003). Bitus means the world of the living, the living world, the perpetual world (Delamarre, 2003).

Dumnos: Dumnos, or Dubnos, is the deep, the world below (Delamarre, 2003). Dumnos may instead refer more accurately to dark rather than deep (Delamarre, 2003), which can be seen in the IE cosmos where the ‘underworld’ was seen in the night sky in the north and was thought of as a dark wet world (Dodge, 2020), however Lincoln (1981) suggests it is in the southern sky.

The watery way motif is supported in at least some Gaulish traditions and related Celtic traditions, namely by Procopius. Procopius states that fishermen were believed to ferry souls to an island, Brittia, during the night (Koch, 2006). Lucan also says that the Druids taught that the souls of humans inhabit another body in another realm after death, but does not provide details on this realm (Lucan, Pharsalia, 1. 432-436). 

Antumnos: The name Antumnos likely comes from *ande-*dubnos, ande- being below, and dubnos being world, altogether meaning the world below (Delamarre, 2003). Antumnos is cognate with the Welsh Annwfn/Annwn, meaning ‘Otherworld’, potentially having the more precise meaning ‘Un-world’ or ‘Underworld’ (Koch, 2006). The Gaulish, and perhaps wider Celtic ‘Otherworld’, was seen as hidden away as opposed to an infernal hell (Mees, 2009). 

The Three Kings

Finishing the comparative cosmic studies, we will move into the theory posited by Delamarre (1999, 2003), that of the Three Kings of the Three Worlds. We will discuss the etymology of Albiorix, Biturix and Dubnorix, the inscriptions associated with the names, any interpretatio that has been applied to them and finally contextualising them within the proposed cosmic framework. 

Etymology

Albiorix: Delamarre (2003) suggests the meaning ‘King of the (celestial) World’, ‘Celestial King’ and ‘King from above’. Delamarre states that the name has a clear mythic and religious context due to Albios referring to the celestial world and not the sky in general.

Biturix: Delamarre (2003) suggests that Bitus has the meaning of the ‘world of the living'. Therefore, Biturix means ‘King of life’, ‘King of the (middle) world’, and ‘Perpetual king’. Stempel (2013) suggests that Bitu is used in reference to Gods that relate to life, and or creating/ruling our world.

Dubnorix: Delamarre (2003) proposes that Dubnorix means ‘King from below’, ‘King of darkness’, as Dubnos means deep, from below, dark/black and the world below.

Inscriptions and locations

There are over sixty inscriptions recorded to Albiorix, with most of these coming from one site. 

Albiorix also appears as a personal name in Galatia, in a list of priests at the temple of Augustus and Roma (Sitz, 2019). 

There are eight inscriptions to Biturix, coming from a wide geographical range. 

There is one inscription to Dubnorix, which appears in Rome, and is a personal name on a funerary inscription. Another instance of Dubnorix, however, spelt Dumnorix, is seen in Caesar’s “The War for Gaul”, where Dumnorix is the brother of Diviciaus, a Druid and leader of the Aedui tribe (Caesar, O’Donnell 2019 trans). Aldhouse-Green (2018) suggests that Dumnorix was also a Druid due to his standing in the tribe being on par with that of Diviciaus. There is one inscription with Dumnorix and appears to be a personal name.

Interpretatio

Albiorix: Haussler (2014) suggests that due to the meaning of Albiorix’s name and His widespread worship, that He is not a local God but suggestive of religious understandings of the world, cosmic understandings. Haussler backs this assertion with the knowledge that in the provinces, Mars takes the title conseruator, an epithet meaning preserver. Thus, with the name Celestial King and epithet preserver, a picture of Albiorix’s role and place in the cosmos can begin to be seen. 

To further build this picture, we can consider what the interpretatio with Mars may have meant. Green (2004) suggests that in Gaul, we see the associations with agriculture and protection of boundaries take more focus than Mar’s war association. In addition, Green (2004) suggests that Albiorix Mars may act as a God of tribal protection of the Albici. Mars in Gaul was a defender against disease, misfortune and barrenness.

Dumnorix: Lincoln (1981) suggests that the Lord of the Dead and the Underworld was the first king whose sacrifice created the world. His sacrifice created both this world and the underworld at the same time and paved the path on which souls would travel (Lincoln, 1981). Caesar says “Gauls all claim to descend from father Dis, saying this is revealed by druids” (De Bello Gallica, 6.18). Dis Pater is associated with fertility, abundance, wealth and death, and therefore suggestive of the third function. Dumnorix could therefore be a Dis Pater like figure, who is after all associated with the same things as Dis Pater means ‘the father of riches’ (Cicero, De Natura Deorum, II. 26). Lincoln (1981) says that the meeting of human souls with the Lord of the Dead is a reunion with their lineage, as the Lord of the Dead is the father of all humanity. 

Biturix: The etymology of Biturix suggests a preserver of life and cycles of life and death within the realm of Bitus. Biturix is a liminal deity who stands at the threshold or Albios and Dumnos, of life and death. He guides and shepherds the forces that create our world and ensures balance to continue the cycles. There is no life without death and no death without life.

Cosmic standing:

Delamarre (1999, 2003) suggests tripartite rulership of Albiorix ‘King from above, heavenly king’ Biturix ‘King of the (middle) World, perpetual king, centre king’ and Dubnorix ‘King from below, king of darkness’. By looking at the comparative evidence in Indo-European worlds, he suggests that the Gauls likely had the same tripartite cosmos, that of the heavens, middle world, and underworld. This is supported by the linguistic evidence in Gaulish for these concepts. In addition, the names Albiorix, Biturix and Dubnorix were used in Gaulish and seen in inscriptions (as above). A final piece of evidence that Delamarre (1999, 2003) puts forth is the meaning of the word Druid-, the priestly class of the Gauls. He argues that the word means more than “Knowers of the Oak”, but instead means “Knowers of the World Tree”.

Indeed, Dodge (2020) completes an extensive comparative study and finds the tripartite world revolving around a World Tree to be a common motif throughout Indo-European cultures. Bachautz (1982) also suggests that the three worlds and world tree motif are a Celto-Germanic theme, further reinforced by the work of Cusack (2011) on the Celtic world tree motif. 

This suggests that the Gauls considered the World Tree to be both the axis mundi, the pillar of the world, and the imago mundi, a representation of the world (Cusack, 2011). This idea was expanded further in our article here. If indeed the Gauls considered the World Tree, Drus, to be an image of the cosmos itself, the three-part separation of the branches in the heavens, trunk in the middle realm and roots in the underworld works. Therefore, the theory that Albiorix, Biturix and Dubnorix rule from each domain separately, and the Druids knowing the World Tree meaning they know the Three World Kings is supported (Delamarre, 1999). 

The Geography of the cosmos:

The mead hall, Medulissos, "the court flowing with mead", that sits by the Well of Drus is inhabited by Rosmerta and Her partner the Gaulish Mercury, and Dumnorix. Dumnorix as a Deuos of the third function is associated with fertility, abundance and prosperity. Rosmerta is the Deua who gives sovereignty and wealth to the tribe through Her association with divine drinks (Enright, 1999). In Britain, She is associated with milk churns, which further associate Her with prosperity, but also the Milky Way and the divine milk river of Dumnos (Davidson, 2002).

The mead hall may be a divine example of the oppida, which are largely considered now to be politico-religious structures that defined the social structure of the people (Fernández-Götz, 2014). 

The Watery Way, the Milky Way, the river of souls, Sirabona, is the divine river, the first river, it is the body of water the souls of the dead cross to reach Dumnos. It is this river after washing away the memories of the dead that feeds the Well and makes it what it is (Dodge, 2020). 

The Well, Winodoberus, the White Well, is the water that feeds the World Tree and feeds the Watery Way and is filled by the Watery Way (Dodge, 2020). The memories, actions and feelings of the souls of the dead feed into the well, and in turn, feed the World Tree. These washings of the dead make Drus what it is, and then Drus, our cosmos, creates the environment in which we grow and live our lives. This cycle suggests a bi-directional influence; the world shapes us, we shape the world, and ever onwards, it repeats.

The location of the Three Worlds:

The location of the three worlds can be tied to that of the diurnal sky, night sky and twilight (Haudry, 2010). In this view, Indo-Europeans saw three different skies, depending on the time of day. The daylight sky was the realm of the Gods, the *dyeus, the bright ones, Deuoi in Gaulish. The nighttime sky was home to the Gods of the underworld, spirits and ancestors. And twilight, the dusk and dawn. These skies can map onto the functions, daylight being the first function, nighttime being the third function and dawn and dusk being the second or possibly fourth function, both as positive and negative. Dodge (2020) suggests that the Upperworld/heavens were seen in the Southern sky during the day, and the Underworld was seen in the Northern sky during the night. Lincoln (1981) however suggests that the Southern sky was the location of the realm of the dead, specifically the realm of the dead as a paradise. This may relate to the Milky Way being in the southern sky in the northern hemisphere, where it may have been seen as a bridge of souls as Grisby (2019) mentions. It is possible that the heavens and realm of the dead were seen as one in the same place in certain stories, and as separate in others. We would suggest, based on the linguistic evidence in Gaulish of separate worlds, that they were considered separate by the Gauls. As to the directional location of Albios and Dumnos, it may be a matter of preference. 

Summary:

We in Sepanioi Roti suggest that the cosmos is split into three realms, Albios as the heavens, Bitus as this realm and Dumnos as the underworld. These realms are held together by the World Tree, Drus. The one realm unaccounted for is Antumnos, this realm could be considered one of several things. First, that is simply Dumnos by another name. Second, that it is an ‘Otherworld’ that is distinct from the others, or that it is the general name for the other worlds. Lastly, and what we generally see, is that Antumnos is a ‘half’ world, which runs parallel with all three worlds, a place that could perhaps be considered as underneath the bark of Drus, rather than external to it. Antumnos, therefore, exists in all worlds and is still separate from it. Journey too deeply into the mists, waters or forest, and you could find yourself in a realm unlike others.

In Dumnos there exists the White Well, Uinodoberus, from which Rosmerta grants sovereignty, wisdom and prophecies and from which Drus feeds on. This Well fills and is filled by the starry river, Sirabona, which brings the souls of the dead to the Underworld and whose memories fill the Well with its magic.

At the Well stands the mead hall, Medulissos, where Rosmerta, Dumnorix and others dwell. Here they watch over Drus, the Well and the souls of the dead, caring for them and sending them on their way when they are ready. 

Drus connects the realms and is at the same time the realms themselves. It is both the pillar that the world/s revolve around and an image of the world itself. It is fed by the White Well and therefore its growth is influenced by the actions of all souls which pass through the Starry River, Drus’ growth then influencing the world and the souls which inhabit it and so on in an endless cycle. 

In Albios, the heavens, Albiorix rules. He preserves the firmament, the cosmos and cosmic law as the conservator. He defends it with his spear and shield, defending and attacking as necessary.

In Biturix, the earth, rules Biturix, the preserver of life, He who ensures the perpetual cycle of life and death in the middle realm. Biturix balances the forces of life and death, the seasons of summer and winter, and the states of life and death, to ensure that life continues perpetually in Bitus.

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